Introduction to Sociology Essay Example for Free

Introduction to Sociology Essay In this paper it will evaluate the impact of sociological behind what we call family and social change that has evolved during the ages. There are three factors that must be reviewed Functionalism, Conflict, and Interactionism. 1. Functionalism * Functionalism would claim that each member of the family is interdependent and contributes to the functioning of the family. * Family members play their role and have great attitudes there is balance, peace and unity in the family. * The rebel against his or her role then the role as a family as a whole suffers imbalance, stress, disunity and dysfunctional tendencies. * Each member has some power to agree to disagree what is decided. * By having input into decisions each member feels validated and the family can grow based on the idea of consensus rather than authoritarianism. 2. The functionalist theory is a sociological philosophy that attempts to explain social institutions as collective means to fill individual biological needs. 3. The Conflict Theory is a theory that states that society or an organization functions so that each individual participant and its group struggle to maximize their benefits which inevitably contributes to social change such as political views and revolutions. * The theory of conflict within families starts with the premises that family members undergo conflicts and disharmony. * The study includes family dynamics and the roles played by various family members. * The source of the power and the causes of the conflict must be identified. * When the family is dissected and the sources of conflict and power identified the family can better and more effective ways to communicate. * The study of dynamics can help members become more empathetic and understanding of the underlying causes of their conflict. 4. The interactism theory has become one of the dominant sociological perspectives in the world today. The theory studies individuals and how they interact in society. * Symbolic interaction theory describes the family as a unit of interacting personalities. * This theory focuses attention to the way people interact through words, gestures rules and roles. * It is based on how humans develop a complex set of symbols to give meaning to the world. * Understanding these symbols is important in understanding human behavior. * Symbolic interactionism unique contributions to family are families are social groups and that individuals develop both a concept of self and their identities through social interactions. * Symbolic interactism is the way we learn and give meaning to the world through our interactions with others. 5. All three theories, interactism, conflict, and functionalism have to do with social and mental states of the family being determined by a specific role or condition. 6. Functionalist is a macro level analysis. It focuses on how people come together to create society. * It also focuses on whether the actions are good for the equilibrium of society and these are called dysfunctions. * Conflict theory do not see society as whole coming together well for one purpose. It focuses on class conflict. * The main difference between the three is that functionalism and conflict are macro level. Symbolic interactism is micro-level. The beginning of life is the institution most responsible for the achievement of adult satisfaction and social integration. The beginning of human life begins with the family institution; depending on the upbringing of the person will likely determine the social future for society. * Functionalists view the family from the standpoint of universal functions the family provides to society. * Symbolic interactions views family as to what they can bring into society from study how they interact with each other. * Conflict theory focuses on class conflict or the conflict with the family as a group. Conclusion: Each theory will affect social change within the selected institution and depending on how each person uses this information will depend on how society views them as a whole. References: WWW. How does interactionism theory apply to family.edu Social Interactism theory by Lee Flamed.edu Conflict theory- New World Encyclopedia. Functilism theory- New World Encyclopedia Vising, Y (2011). Introduction to Sociology. San Diego, CA: Bridge point Education,Inc. *

Organizational behaviour | Knowledge and power

Organizational behaviour | Knowledge and power ABSTRACT Much of the recent sociological debate on power revolves around the issue of the enabling nature of power. A comprehensive account of power has been discussed in the report i.e power of knowledge, power of money and power of social class and the ways in which these powers can be altered in the future. Much of this debate is related to the works of the French philosopher Michel Foucault (1926-1984), who, following the Italian political philosopher Niccolà ² Machiavelli (1469-1527), sees power as a complex strategic situation in a given society [social setting]. Being deeply structural, his concept involves both constraint and enablement INTRODUCTION Power is one of the most important determinants of managerial effectiveness. Bennis and Nanus (1985) regarded it, as the basic energy needed to initiate and sustain actions. It is a factor without which, leaders cannot lead. It provides the capacity to translate intentions into reality. Power is at the essence of managerial actions and leadership. It can be defined as the potential ability to influence behavior, to change the course of events, to overcome resistance and to get people do things that they would not otherwise do (Pfeffer, 1981) Balance of Power Because power operates both relationally and reciprocally, sociologists speak of the balance of power between parties to a relationship: all parties to all relationships have some power: the sociological examination of power concerns itself with discovering and describing the relative strengths: equal or unequal, stable or subject to periodic change. Sociologists usually analyse relationships in which the parties have relatively equal or nearly equal power in terms of constraint rather than of power. Thus power has a connotation of unilateralism. If this were not so, then all relationships could be described in terms of power, and its meaning would be lost. Even in structuralist social theory, power appears as a process, an aspect to an ongoing social structure. One can sometimes distinguish primary power: the direct and personal use of force for coercion; and secondary power, which may involve the threat of force or social constraint, most likely involving third-party exercisers of delegated power. Etzioni (1961) talked about two kinds of power: position power and persona/power Position power refers to ability to induce or influence others behavior because of ones position in the organization. French and Ravens (1959) legitimate power can be considered position power. Employees obey the orders of those who have formal authority or position power Taking my position as the ticket consultant, I find that Ive several powers that are directed towards both seniors and subordinates. One of the powers is persona/ power. i e this is where individuals derive their power from their own skills and efforts. Persona/ power is the extent to which subordinates are willing to follow the leader. This personal power has extended my affection, love, consideration, encouragement, recognition and attachment. Bass, Wurster and Alcock (1961) found that people want to be valued and esteemed mainly by those whom they value and respect. Therefore people bestow such persons with personal power. It is therefore clear that personal power comes from below and can be taken away more quickly by the subordinates as compared to position power. French and Ravens Referent Power and Expert power would form part of personal power. Other than the personal power, which calls for respect from the seniors, there is also the power of authority. This power is mostly directed to the subordinates in the office. It can be subdivided into: Line authority. This is the authorityover subordinates inmy chain ofcommand. However this authority corresponds directly to the place within my chain of command and does not exist outside my chain of command i.e this power cannot be exercised beyond my department Staff authority. This is the rightof staff to counsel, advice, or make recommendations to line personnel, and as a member of staff, I feel this is one of the powers that I possess. This type of authority though doesnt give me the right to give line personnel orders that affect the mission of the line organization The managers, possess the power of authority and position power over their subordinates of which am one. Position power and authority have been interchangeably used in the present times based on Etizionis findings. This is by applying various tactics, some of which are: Authority to sanction, i.e. any permission or approval that makes any course of action valid is under them. Therefore any intention to misuse their power and an important idea seeking their approval results to waste. This influential principle dictates what and when.a choice is to be made. Michener and Burt (1975) examined factors responsible for leadership success in eliciting compliance. They reported that compliance was greater when leaders explained that their demands as good for the group, had power to punish persons who did not comply to the leaders commands, and had a legitimate right to make demands on subordinates. Another study (Gamson, 1968) suggested that leaders would shift toward coercion of subordinates if they perceived that they lacked subordinates approval but did have the legitimate authority for asking for compliance Authority to Reward i. e having the final say in matters pertaining to promotions, working is directed towards trying to appease the seniors, with a notion of hard work recognition that will lead to a promotion. This results to award of promotions without merit considerations. Persuasiveness contributes positively to powerfulness of managers while appeasement and doing favors to superiors contributes negatively to the same. Powerful managers perceive their subordinates behavior relatively more positively. Enforcing discipline, pressure for compliance, persuasiveness and authority to reward emerge then as important influence strategies to arrest dysfunctional employee behaviors. Exchange of favors on the other hand seems to be ineffective influence strategy as it helps in thriving dysfunctional employee behavior. Knowledge (granted or withheld, shared or kept secret) Knowledge can be expressed as expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject or what is known in a particular field or in total; facts and information As a sale consultant, Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes: perception, learning, communication, association and reasoning. Knowledge also helps sale consultant in understanding subject matter with the ability to use it for a specific purpose if appropriate. Situated knowledge is knowledge specific to a particular situation. A sale consultant can use various methods of generating knowledge, such as trial and error, or learning from experience, tend to create highly situational knowledge. One of the main benefits of the scientific method is that the theories it generates are much less situational than knowledge gained by other methods.[citation needed] Situational knowledge is often embedded in language, culture, or traditions.[citation needed] Knowledge generated through experience is called knowledge a posteriori, meaning afterwards. The pure existence of a term like a posteriori means this also has a counterpart. In this case that is knowledge a priori, meaning before. The knowledge prior to any experience means that there are certain assumptions that one takes for granted. For example if you are being told about a chair it is clear to you that the chair is in space, that it is 3D. This knowledge is not knowledge that one can forget, even someone suffering from amnesia experiences the world in 3D. See also: a priori and a posteriori. There is also partial knowledge. This whereby one discipline of epistemology focuses on partial knowledge. In most realistic cases, it is not possible to have an exhaustive understanding of an information domain, so then we have to live with the fact that our knowledge is always not complete, that is, partial. Most real problems have to be solved by taking advantage of a partial understanding of the problem context and problem data. That is very different from the typical simple maths problems one might solve at school, where all data is given and one has a perfect understanding of formulas necessary to solve them. This idea is also present in the concept of bounded rationality which assumes that in real life situation people often have a limited access of information and take decision accordingly. Another implication of knowledge is the scientific knowledge. The development of the scientific method has made a significant contribution to understanding of knowledge. Majoring on this concept of knowledge, a sale consultant has to be equipped with a method of inquiry which is based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. The scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses. Science and the nature of scientific knowledge has also become the subject of Philosophy. As science itself has developed, knowledge has developed a broader usage which has been developing within biology/psychology-discussed elsewhere as meta-epistemology, or genetic epistemology, and to some extent related to theory of cognitive development. Power of Persuasion Persuasion is a form of social influence. It is the process of guiding people and oneself toward the adoption of an idea, attitude, or action by rational and symbolic (though not always logical) means. Persuasion methods are also sometimes referred to as persuasion tactics or persuasion strategies therefore as sale consultant, one need to be equipped with these methods for effective running of the organization. These methods include: Reciprocity This is where by sale consultant tends to return a favor. This is especially when one feels something good has been done and needs to appreciate the effort. Commitment and Consistency Once people commit to what they think is right, orally or in writing, they are more likely to honor that commitment, even if the original incentive or motivation is subsequently removed. For example, in car sales, suddenly raising the price at the last moment works because the buyer has already decided to buy. Social Proof This is where by people tend to do things that they see other people are doing. For example, in one experiment, one or more confederates would look up into the sky; bystanders would then look up into the sky to see what they were seeing. Social value of unfamiliar people is ambiguous and requires a lot of effort to assess accurately. Given limited time and motivation, other people will often evaluate others based on how surrounding people behave towards them. For example, if a man is perceived to be in a company of attractive women, or is associated with them, then his perceived social value and attractiveness will be perceived to be greater. The implied cognition in this case would be All those girls seem to really like him, there must be something about him thats high value. If he is seen to be rejected by many women, his social value will be judged negatively. The implied cognition is then I just saw him being rejected by many women, there is probably a good reason why they dont like him. Liking People are easily persuaded by other people whom they like. People were more likely to buy if they liked the person selling it to them. Some of the many biases favoring more attractive people are discussed, but generally more aesthetically pleasing people tend to use this influence excellently over others. Scarcity Perceived scarcity will generate demand. For example, saying offers are available for a limited time only encourages sales. Propaganda is also closely related to Persuasion. Its a concerted set of messages aimed at influencing the opinions or behavior of large numbers of people. Instead of impartially providing information, propaganda in its most basic sense presents information in order to influence its audience. The most effective propaganda is often completely truthful, but some propaganda presents facts selectively to encourage a particular synthesis, or gives loaded messages in order to produce an emotional rather than rational response to the information presented. The desired result is a change of the cognitive narrative of the subject in the target audience. The term propaganda first appeared in 1622 when Pope Gregory XV established the Sacred Congregation for Propagating the Faith. Propaganda was then as now about convincing large numbers of people about the veracity of a given set of ideas. Propaganda is as old as people, politics and religion. Sources of power can provide organizational members with a variety of means for enhancing their interests and smoothing over or creating organization conflict.. For example, some people derive power because they have been given authority by the organization to tell others what to do.Other people might have particular expertise or knowledge which the organization is dependent on, which gives them power.Some individuals might not have formal authority or expertise but might be very popular and thus have power through their own personal. The following are some of the sources Formal authority: This is when one is the legitimate owner of an organization, is the chief executive officer, or the general manager, one can use this authority to make crucial decisions in an organization whether good or bad. Use of organizational structure, rules and regulations can change the scope of working in an organization. Ability to cope with uncertainty: this feeling makes one have an advantage over the rest of the members of an organization since one feels that the organization will depend on your idea once anything happens. Interpersonal alliances, networks, and control of informal organization : if one is capable of uniting the entire workforce, the seniors will hold you as a valuable asset which can be used in case of a conflict. The same is also true when maybe a manager possesses these traits over his/her subordinates .i.e. he/she can use them to convince the subordinates in case of a misunderstanding. Symbolism and the management of meaning: This is applicable to managers whose record of management is high and who lead by example. This makes the subordinates to fear and respect the senior. Some may also possess the power to control: scarce resources,decision processes knowledge and information, boundaries, technology, counter organizations. With this power of control, the organizations development is determined by how you use it. Sources of power depend upon mainly three abilities whish are: reduce uncertainty, lack of substitutes and centrality of activities. Uncertainty: resource control, information control, decision making control, substitutability, centrality and managing the boss. Since most of us work in socially intricate organizations where we need the help not only of subordinates but of colleagues, superiors, and outsiders to accomplish our goals, its important for us to bridge the power gap so formed because we must depend on people over whom we have little or no explicit control. Hence all members of an organization should use the interpersonal power relations that include, reward power, coercive power, legitimate power, reference power and expert power In reward power, the needs and wants of the people are put into consideration and their actions appreciated. In coercive power credible penalties are identified to deter unacceptable behavior and when done effectively rules and targets can be set. Reward and coercive power depend on the agents ability to bestow on the clients positive and negative outcomes, respectively. Using either of these bases will induce only a superficial change in the client; that is, none of the clients privately held beliefs, attitudes, or values are changed. Instead, only public compliance is obtained, the continuation of which depends on successful surveillance of the client by the agent. In the legitimate power, formal power can be used to maintain it while for effectiveness; politeness and sending of requests are applied. Its based on the targets belief that the agent has a legitimate right to exert influence, and that the target has an obligation to accept this influence. It leads to private acceptance that comes from within the target and as such it does not require surveillance by the agent in order to be successful. To maintain reference power, managers should show acceptance and positive regards and for effectiveness, they should use personal appeals where necessary. It depends on the targets identifying with the agent. It leads to private acceptance by the target through enabling the target to maintain a satisfactory relationship with the agent and see himself/herself as similar to the target on certain relevant dimensions. To maintain expert power managers should earn more relevant knowledge and try to explain the needs and reasons for request of proposals. Expert power of the agent depends on the targets attributing superior knowledge or experience to the agent. When such faith in the agent is present, expert power will again result in private acceptance on the part of the target. Contrary to the bases of power discussed above, informational is independent both of the person of the agent and of the agents relationship with the target, and is instead based on the perceived relevance and validity of the information. A related discussion of social influence processes in terms of compliance, identification, and internalization is offered by Kelman (1956, 1961; Raven, 1974). Bosses should also use power ethically i.e. ethical power means using logical power in the favor of humanity which comes from managers characters. There are some processes that use ethical power in a firm or organization which are: Reward power in ethical way should be used by managers as means to verify, compliance, make feasible and reasonable requests etc. Hence, all powers should be used ethically by all managers and all members of any organization. References 1. Cervero, R., Wilson, A. (1994). Planning Responsibly for Adult Education: A Guide to Negotiating Power and Interests. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 2. Cervero, R. M., Wilson, A.L. (1998). Working the planning table: The political practice of adult education. Studies in Continuing Education, 20, 5-21. 3. Drennon, C.E., Cervero, R.M. (2002). The politics of facilitation: Negotiating power and politics in practitioner inquiry groups. Adult Education Quarterly, 52, 193-209. 4. Robbins Stephen P. (2003), Organizational Behavior (Tenth Edition), Prentice Hall of India Private Ltd. 5. Aswathappa K. (1991), Organisational Behaviour: Text, Cases and Games, Himalaya Publishing House. 6. Singh Yogendra Pandey Mamta (2004), Organisational Behaviour, A.I.T.B.S. Publishers. 7. Fincham Robin Rhodes Peter (2005), Principles of Organisational Behaviours, Oxford Press. Health Benefits of Swimming: Cultural Case Study Health Benefits of Swimming: Cultural Case Study Section A In the assignment, I have engaged in my chosen occupation which is swimming that I will be discussing in relation to meaning, form, purpose and performance components. Occupations are where individuals engage in activities that have meaning and purpose (World Federation of Occupational Therapists [WFOT], 2011). The chosen occupation will be explored in relation to individual meaning and socio-cultural meaning of how this could differ in other situations for others. The case study of Jessica, aged eight years old, female and has moderate cerebral palsy [CP] will be discussed in relation to my chosen occupation. The findings will also discuss how Jessicas social-cultural and occupational dysfunction impacts on her occupational participation; especially using my occupation as a therapeutic application. Occupational dysfunction identifies any difficulties that clients may have when engaging or performing in occupations (Reed, 2015). Therapeutic application defined as the therapeutic use of self-associating the link between relationship, efficacy and individuals involvement (Solman, Clouston, 2016). In addition, it will also explore whether Jessicas condition can have positive and negative effects on her health and well-being. Although physical and built environments impact on what and how people do things, it is the cultural context through which people understand and ascribe meaning to what they do (Whiteford, 2010). Meaning is the entire interpretive experience engaged in by an individual encountering an occupational form (Kramer, Hinojosa, Royeen, 2003). Cutchin Dickie (2013) do specify that occupations are forms of activity that create and re-create a multitude of our relationship with the worlds we experience. In addition, the result of engaging in occupations is vital to understanding the experience, social development and relates to well-being. Occupational form guides, structures, or suggests what is to be done by the person (Kramer, Hinojosa, Royeen, 2003; Nelson, 1994). Nelson (1988) stated that the form is observable and objective, but it can change, for example; completing an activity on your own and doing the activity with friends; the form may have an impact on meaning. The purpose is wha t it is experienced once an individual has engaged in the occupation, it provides meaning and motive for the individual (Kramer, Hinojosa, Royeen, 2003). My chosen occupation was swimming which I have engaged in individually. I see swimming as a leisure activity which means I engage in the activity in my free time within my own choice and it is fun (Poulsen, Ziviani, 2010). The meaning of engaging in swimming for me is that it provides exercise, reduces stress and time to myself. Nelson (1988) argued that the meaning may not positive, but the purpose gives a reason for engaging with a form. Culture provides scaffolding for informing and shaping an individuals perception of the different roles and behaviours that are important in the social group (Burke, 2003). As occupations are culturally placed, individuals can be influenced by other causes, for example, choice, personal need, the level of skills and gender expectations (Wilcock, Hocking, 2015). Performance components, for example, sensori- motor, cognitive, psychosocial, and psychological aspects are the elements of performance that occupational therapists assess and, when needed, in which they intervene for improving occupational performance (Duncan, 2011). Performance components that I have used in my occupation are a range of motion, strength and muscle tone within the neuromusculoskeletal category.   Performance components refer to what the person is thinking, feeling and doing, which leads to effective engagement in occupation (Strong, Gruhl, 2010). Section B In relation to Jessicas background, she was born in the United Kingdom and the parents are Chinese. There are specific values and beliefs within their culture which impact on how an occupational therapist is able to deliver a specific therapeutic program with the child. The Chinese community do not like their child to socialise with other cultures, especially receiving intervention from professionals and although education is an exception. The Home Affairs Committee (1985, p.14) stated that The Chinese community is still fairly conservative in nature, sticking well within its own created socio-economic subculture (Chau, 2013). The occupational therapist breaks down barriers and reassures parents. An occupational therapist creates an intervention when working with children, it is taken into consideration of the family and childs interests, including gaining an analysis of the childs behaviour and performance when engaging in occupations. It should be acknowledged that the familys pers pective may differ than the occupational therapists perception and to ensure what priorities are important to that particular child and family (Case-Smith, 2010). Jessica has moderate CP, she is quite an interactive child and has no language difficulties. Jessicas occupation dysfunction is that she does not often attend school as she frequently loses her balance when walking and uses a stick occasionally as she has long term chronic pain. Jessicas physical activity is minimal. Swimming will be used as a therapeutic application for Jessica to improve her general fitness levels, improve her gross motor skills, for example, walking or running and the benefits of using swimming in the long term. At the beginning of the intervention for swimming, it is one to one basis to start with to provide a person-centred approach and focusing on improving Jessicas gross motor skills and her confidence. Long term goal for Jessica is that she will be able to incorporate swimming into her routine, including swimming at school with other children. This would increase socialisation, makes swimming fun and whilst maintain fitness levels. Swimming as a physical activity for children with CP shows the benefits in improving chronic pain and preserves locomotor skills from deterioration in the long term (Declerck, Verheul, Daly, Sanders, 2016). It is agreed by Kelly, Darrah, (2005; p.69) that children with CP to improve fitness and function because of the properties of water, reduce excessive joint loading and promote strengthening while at the same time providing assistance to help support children with decreased postural control and muscle weakness. However, taking into consideration that all individuals are unique and have their own needs, it is argued that attention should be focused on the childs health and well-being, especially accessibility of activity, pain, fatigue and support network (Lauruschkus, Nordmark, Hallstrà ¶m, 2014; Whiteford Townsend, 2011). The World Health Organization [WHO], (1948) defined heath as the state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Wellbeing is central to ones physical and mental health which includes quality of life and satisfaction (Bass, Baum, Christiansen, 2015). Long term goal for Jessica is that she will be able to return to school full time and increase improvement with Jessicas walking, with support from her teachers and parents (Duncan, 2011). Jessica will gradually increase the duration of attendance from half a day to one full day on a weekly basis, eventually, attendance will full time. Jessicas walking progress will be monitored by the occupational ther apist, family, and teachers. Leisure activities can be a creative therapeutic tool, or a targeted component of a holistic occupational performance plan (Polatajko, Davis, McEwen, 2015). It is essential that children with CP should be encouraged at an early age to participate in physical activity (Zwier, van Schie, Becher, Smits, Gorter, Dallmeijer, 2010) as it is known that children with CP have even lower physical activity levels than their typically developing peers (Maltais,   Wiart, Fowler, Verschuren, Damiano, 2014). Lack of physical activity has negative effects on health and wellbeing of children with CP especially an increased risk of health related conditions, such as obesity, diabetes, depression and heart disease (Bania, Dodd, Taylor, 2010; National Institute for Health and Care Excellence [NICE], 2016). It may lead to potential barriers to enable participating in physical activity due to poor physical health and lack of support (Creek Lougher, 2011). There is evidence of therapeutic use i s that positive leisure engagement can improve subjective well-being, including short-term mood enhancement and longer lasting thoughts about life satisfaction in general. (Poulsen Ziviani, 2010). Furthermore, it is argued by Poulson Ziviani (2010) that choice and mastery are vital provision for a child to be satisfied with general life; consequently allowing a child to choose a physical activity that they enjoy enables a long term satisfaction (Preston, 2009). According to Harris, Yuill, Luckin, (2007) when an individual engages in activities that are meaningful, it may deliver a suitable level of challenge and interest which encourages mastery-oriented approach. When an individual has a long-term neurological condition, it may have an impact on the choice, control and potential abilities of the individual to engage in occupations which are meaningful (Stadnyk et al., 2010). Therapeutic knowledge is required in making decisions about leisure interest that match the childs abilit ies and interests and meet the familys needs and resources (Rodger, 2010). In conclusion, a holistic approach to working with individuals is paramount and knowledge about socio-cultural issues is required to understand many possible barriers. It is important that occupational therapists focus on the meaning than the purpose when individuals engage within an occupation. It is essential to allow individuals to have the control that allows them to be confident and capable to continue to engage in occupations independently, therefore helps them not to be reliant on others (Duncan, 2011; Crist, 2010). Wilcock, Hocking, (2015) argued that meaning, purpose, control and choice is fundamental for a quality of life, health, and well-being.

Because I could Not Stop for Death by Emily Dickinson Essay -- Becaus

Emily Dickinson was born in Amherst, Massachusetts, on December 10, 1830. Except for a few months of travel, she remained in Amherst until her death. Dickinson began, in her twenties, a gradual retreat into the confines of the homestead, the house in which she was born, until for the last fifteen years of her life she didn't leave its grounds and saw no one but her brother and sister. As her withdrawal intensified, Emily's principal method of communication was through her letters. Emily Dickinson died on May 15, 1886 after an illness. ( Harold Bloom 11 - 13) Modern readers are apt to comment upon the frequency with which Dickinson returns to this subject of death. (Wolff, Cynthia, G. 749) "Because I could Not Stop For Death" was written in about 1863 (Kennedy 740) The poem is comprised of six stanzas of four lines each. The poem is long and aligned to the left. The rhyme scheme is ABCB in its first and last two stanzas; however, stanza three and four has different rhyme schemes as stanza three is read ABBC and stanza four is read ABCD. She frequently applies the use of personal pronouns; for example, in the first stanza of the poem, she uses the pronouns "I", "He", "Ourselves". In the second stanza she uses the pronouns "We", "He", "I". In the third stanza she uses the pronoun "We", in three out the four lines composing the stanza. As Harold Bloom, editor of "Bloom's Major Poets ' Emily Dickinson' " says,† When Dickinson declares her "I," these instants become our own" (Bloom 38) The use of pronouns in the poem makes us, as the readers, get involved so deeply into the poem so that we get to feel the protagonist of the poem which is of course the speaker. Most stanzas are composed of a two -beat line but the majority is three b... ...re is a paradise waiting for us. Works Cited Dickinson, Emily. "Because I could Not Stop For Death." Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. 4th Compact Ed. XJ Kennedy and Dana Gioia . NY: Longman, 2005 Wolff, Cynthia, G. "Dickinson And Death." Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. 4th Compact Ed. XJ Kennedy and Dana Gioia . NY: Longman, 2005 Bloom, Harold. "Biography of Emily Dickinson." Bloom's Major Poets. Edited And With An Introduction By Harold Bloom: Emily Dickinson. Comprehensive Research And Study Guide. Harold Bloom. Broomall, PA: Chelsea House Publishers, 1999 Tate, Allen. "Allen Tate On Emily Dickinson." Bloom's Major Poets. Edited And With An Introduction By Harold Bloom: Emily Dickinson. Comprehensive Research And Study Guide. Harold Bloom. Broomall, PA: Chelsea House Publishers, 1999

Current Research Investigations of Corollary Discharge :: Biology Medicine Research Papers

Current Research Investigations of Corollary Discharge Corollary discharge assists both human and non-human animals distinguish between self-generated (internal) and external motor responses. By sending signals which report important information about movement commands and intension animals are able to accurately produce motor sequences with ease and coordination. When a motor command initiates an electric organ discharge, the signal transmits important information to the brain which serves as a feed-back mechanisms which assist with self-monitoring; this is formally defined as corollary discharge(6). Although the corollary discharge system is one of the most important systems which animals possess for the control and detection of motor movements, its specific neurological mapping is largely unknown. Many studies which investigate the specific nature of corollary discharge focus on either auditory or visual sensory perception. Current investigations of corollary discharge are commonly associated with the use non-human primates and humans who suffer from Schizophrenia. By using non-human primates for the investigation of the neuronal network of the corollary discharge system both invasive and non-invasive investigation may be explored. In addition, investigating Schizophrenics who suffer from auditory hallucinations, the inability to differentiate between spoken and thought speech (1), may also significantly contribute to the advancement and increased understandings of the corollary discharge systems. Sommer et. al., proposed a neuronal pathway for corollary discharge in non-human primates. He suggested that this pathway extends from the brainstem to the frontal cortex. Within the pathway the brain was to initiate movement as well as supply internal information which was then used by sensory systems to adjust for resultant changes(5). These adjustments were said to occur within the peripheral receptors and motor planning systems which would then prepare the body for future movements(5). Corollary discharge signals in Sommer's study were identified as movement related activity which projected upstream (up the spinal cord) away from motor neurons, transmitting information but not causing any actual movement (4). By measuring the neuronal firing of the superior colliculus in the frontal cortex during normal and stimulated saccade movements of the eye, Sommer measured the corollary discharge signals in monkeys. The results of Sommer's study suggested that non-human primates did i n fact transmit corollary discharge signals during eye saccades which was suggestive of a brainstem to frontal cortex pathway for transmission. While Sommer's study provided novel and interesting ideas in regard to the specific pathway of corollary discharge, it focused largely of saccadic eye movements in non-human primates.

Caddie - Australian Movie Review :: essays research papers

The movie Caddie stars Helen Morse as ‘Caddie’ Marsh, a young woman in the depression, Jackie Weaver, as Caddie’s friend Leslie, Jack Thompson as Ted, and Takis Emmanuel as Peter. Caddie is set in the times of the Australian depression and was the first remotely successful Australian feature film. It follows the story of a spirited woman and her experiences over seven life-shaping years of her life. Through her eyes we see the effect of the depression on the average Australians of the time. The movie tells the story of a young Sydney woman during the years 1925 to 1932 in which time she changes from a young suburban 25 year old matron and mother to a free-wheeling woman of 32. The film opens with Caddie learning that her husband is in love with her best friend, Ester, and taking the only course she feels is open to her; she leaves him taking the children with her. To earn enough money to keep her and the children, Caddie takes a job as a barmaid, and soon learns the ropes with the help of fellow barmaid Josie. One day Ted, the SP bookmaker comes into the pub. He names her Caddie after his brand new Cadillac that, like her, he says has class and beauty. Caddie is struggling to look after her two children, Anne, and Terry properly, so she makes the very difficult decision to put them into children’s homes. Through a friend, Caddie meets Peter, a Greek immigrant and successful businessman. They fall in love and become lovers, but fate strikes with the sudden illness of Peter’s father and he has to leave for Greece. Winter two years later, and the Great Depression is taking its toll on Sydney and Caddie. She has trouble staying employed, and finally is bed-ridden suffering from malnutrition and nervous exhaustion. She is befriended by â€Å"Bill the Rabbito† and his younger brother Sonny, who share their meagre belongings with her until she is well and strong again. Caddie takes yet another job as a barmaid, and meets Paddy Reilly who

Conceptual Skills

Conceptualizing Organizational Change This paper focuses on conceptualising organisational change as a planned and manageable process. Different theoretical assumptions are presented in order to support the argument of change as a planned and manageable process in contemporary organisations. The paper utilises examples from two Nigerian companies, Access Bank Plc and Unilever Nigeria Plc. The main conclusion is that Access Bank Plc indicates that change can be a planned process, while Unilever Nigeria Plc shows the case of change as a manageable process. However, it is indicated that change may not succeed as a planned and manageable process especially in the context of Nigerian public education and the food and beverage industry. The paper also contributes to understanding change as a flexible and innovative process occurring in global companies. Introduction It has been suggested that organisational commitment may lead to the proper implementation of change. Managers tend to rely on employees while planning or managing organisational change, but organisational commitment may decrease as a direct response to such change (Grieves 2010). Manifesting positive employee attitudes towards change has been linked with successful change initiatives in organisations. It has been argued that change can be both a planned and manageable process (Caldwell 2006). At the same time, it may appear that change as a planned and manageable process may fail, as it will be shown in the case of Nigerian public education and the food and beverage industry. The objective of this paper is to explore the dimensions of change as a planned and manageable process, with focus on the performance of two Nigerian organisations, Access Bank Plc and Unilever Nigeria Plc. Change as a Planned Process: Access Bank Plc, Nigeria This section provides evidence on change as a planned process as applied in Access Bank Plc, Nigeria. There is an argument outlined in the change management literature suggesting that employee attitudes towards change might be affected by the perceptions employees demonstrate towards organisational change (Olufemi 2009). Employees play an important role in forming specific attitudes towards organisational change as a planned and manageable process (Caldwell 2006). They may either show positive or negative evaluative judgments of the change model. Change as a planned process indicates the presence of two dimensions, change readiness and change resistance. These dimensions reflect the presence of strategic planning within organisations that are ready to embrace the innovative concept of change. Change readiness has been associated with employees’ behavioural responses to change (Hughes 2010). Resistance to change may not take place in case employees strongly believe that they ha ve the capacities to cope with such projected change. Even though resistance to change may take place, it may be perceived in a positive way considering that it would force companies to implement new and more effective strategies to address the issue of change. Change can be a planned process, which managers aim to link with change-oriented activities. It can be argued that planned change occurs when some stakeholders manifest a desire to change, enhance their personal introspection, and modify their behavioural patterns in relevant ways (Hughes 2011). However, it would be unrealistic to state that planned change reflects the idea that everyone decides it is useful. Change as a planned process indicates the presence of solid changing forces in both the internal and external environment of organisations. Kotter’s 8-step model of change indicates that change can be a planned process involving eight proposed steps from creating the urgency for change to managing it accordingly in the organisational context (Hughes 2010). Jarrett (2003) has argued that planned change seems to increase an organisation’s effectiveness. Approaches to change as a planned process may reflect the relevance of different theories and concepts that tend t o describe the stages and procedures of implementing change. The integrative model of organisational change suggests that change can be a planned process through a strong focus on exploration, planning, action and integration (Jarrett 2003). In addition, emergent theories of change present an argument that managers who aim at developing change as a planned process show an in-depth understanding of the organisation, its culture, assets and readiness to change. Researchers have argued that change projects utilising process orientation and learning are more expected to succeed than those manifesting expert planning at all stages of organisational change in contemporary business (Nistelrooij and Sminia 2010). Change planning and management have identified change as an essential competency for the majority of organisational leaders. Planning change in the context of certainty has become a necessary aspect in organisations which openly promotes flexible communication based on change and innovation. Since some individuals may perceive change as an i ntegral part of organisational life, it would be relevant to focus on developing effective strategies to monitor and sustain such change (Hughes 2010). Planning in relation to change refers to a consideration of the current and future needs of organisations. Companies illustrating that change can be a planned process focus on planning as a goal-directed activity, in which emphasis is put on organisational goals while trying to maintain change. This may result in better coordination and easy implementation of change in companies (Carnell 2007). An exploration of the Nigerian banking industry reveals a close relationship between planned organisational change and HRM interventions. New banking management practices in Nigeria require the implementation of planned change that may contribute to improved organisational commitment, performance and compliance with important regulatory standards (Olufemi 2009). The acquisition of Intercontinental Bank by Access Bank Plc, Nigeria, has resulted in the necessity of redefining organisational change as a planned process to reflect the needs of the new workforce and the objectives of the banking organisation (Paton and MacCalman 2008). It has been suggested that successful change planning and management in organisations depends on staffing, alleviating fears, effective communication and planning, and integrating human resource systems (Hughes 2011). In the case of Access Bank Plc, planned organisational change has resulted in creating the need for the human resource department to focus on staffing (Olufemi 2009). The expansion of the bank’s recruiting base has been associated with perceptions of change as a planned process, in which the institution is focused on attracting more talented employees. Even though organisational change may create fear and uncertainty, managers considering change as a planned process may alleviate those fears (Hayes 2010). The acquisition initiated by the Nigerian bank shows that employees have learned to adapt to new processes and procedures within the institution (Olufemi 2009). The case of Access Bank Plc indicates that organisational change can be a planned process due to the interventionist strategies employed by HR managers of the organisation. The creation of new job structures by the bank reflected the necessity to relate organisational change to employees’ roles and expectations (Olufemi 2009). This was done in order to accommodate employees working in both companies considering the acquisition process that took place. The existing human resource systems in the bank showed the trend of planned organisational change which further reflected employees’ commitment to the bank’s long-term objectives. Moreover, Access Bank Plc needed to adjust its HRM policies to achieve its initially determined strategic goals which represent the process of planned change within the institution (Hayes 2010). The model found in the bank presents the existence of convergence among HRM interventionist strategies that were consistent with the perceptions o f change as a planned process. Variables such as fear, planning and development as well as integrated human resources indicate a strong focus on organisational change which has been adequately planned at Access Bank Plc. The bank’s managers have ensured understanding of the planned change process which is fundamental for change implementation (Nistelrooij and Sminia 2010). The interests of various stakeholders are considered as part of such ongoing planning process. As a result of the acquisition, Access Bank Plc tried to alleviate employees’ uncertainty through setting clear corporate objectives and effective communication (Paton and McCalman 2008). Flexibility has been associated with planned organisational change in this Nigerian organisation. Taking various perceptions into consideration was important in encouraging employees’ commitment and planning change. Despite the occurrence of certain conflicts in the institution, the managers demonstrated strong leadership skills while planning and managing change. Another significant aspect of the planned change process in Access Bank Plc is the formation of a change team for better articulation of the stages expected during organisational change. The Nigerian bank has demonstrated readiness of its employees to accept change as it has been linked with improved organisational performance (Olufemi 2009). The organisation’s managers encouraged integration between processes and implementation of new organisational methods to cope with the process of planned change. Strong corporate culture, strategy, structure and relevant organisational priorities emerged as a result of the Nigerian bank’s focus on organisational change as a planned process. The process of planned change tries to incorporate potential situations of crisis that may occur in the organisation (Caldwell 2006). Therefore, the planned approach to change incorporates unpredictable events that may result from different organisational conflicts. The Nigerian bank ensures constant adaptations to changing organisational situations. Considering that organisational change is unpredictable is important in perceiving such process as comprising of different organisational factors and flexible learning (Hughes 2010). Lessons learned from the case of Access Bank Plc involve both practical and theoretical considerations, such as identifying sources of change resistance, involvement of employees on a regular basis and developing proper communication plans (Olufemi 2009). The idea is to help the bank’s employees perceive themselves as part of the ongoing organisational change which reflected elements of a planned process. They need to understand that organisational change may influence them to a significant extent in terms of becoming more confident and competent in accomplishing their roles and responsibilities (Nistelrooij and Sminia 2010). It has been demonstrated that all levels of management of Access Bank Plc were aligned w ith organisational change and thus prevented the formation of negative attitudes among employees. In conclusion, the progress of change in the Nigerian bank was significant due to the role played by HR managers and leaders who placed importance on communication to achieve the planned process of change. Failure of Change as a Planned Process: Nigerian Public Sector This section describes the failure of change as a planned process in the Nigerian public sector. In a study conducted by Abdulraheem et al. (2013), it has been found that government reform agenda in Nigeria failed to achieve proper results in improving the quality of education in the country despite adopting the model of change as a planned process. In-depth interviews were conducted as the results showed that cultural differences are a significant indicator of adherence to organisational values (Abdulraheem et al. 2013). It has been suggested that despite the easy formulation of theories and models of change as planned, such aspects of change were difficult to implement in practice. Employees’ resistance to change was indicated across the Nigerian public sector. Cultural differences in terms of change prevented the successful implementation of change. Different education programmes have been introduced in the context of the Nigerian public sector, but they failed to achieve the objectives of meaningful change in education they initially presented. Abdulraheem et al. (2013) pointed out that change as a planned process was counterproductive to some educational programmes. The divergence of organisational values in Nigeria reflected the unsuccessful adoption of change as a planned process in public education. Despite change efforts, the level of educational development was failed to be comprehended properly. Change as a Manageable Process: Unilever Nigeria Plc This section covers the implications of change as a manageable process in the case of Unilever Nigeria Plc. The business environment in general has created a fast pace of change in the workplaceVarious acquisitions, advanced technological tools, reformation, cutbacks and economic recession are all aspects that contribute to a quite unstable business climate (Hayes 2010). The capability to adjust to the demands of the evolving workplace is considered an essential element for individuals and organisational existence. Organisational change is constantly present at Unilever and individuals are shown ato manage, control and guide it. Such change refers not only to accepting human factors, but also to an ability to organise and manage change factors efficiently, considering that change may be predictable (Grieves 2010). Organisational change taking place in the Nigerian organisation is at a transitory stage in a direction of stabilising its future position in the industry. The process of o rganisational change at Unilever can be managed as the procedure of planning, controlling and executing change in organisations in such a way is to reduce employee confrontation/resistance and cost to the organisation. In turn increasing the usefulness of the change effort becomes a priority to managers. Change is both predictable and attractive for the Nigerian company embracing the idea of innovation (Carnell 2007). The current business environment indicates signs of rapid competitiveness which results from the application of change initiatives that target the development of companies in a relevant direction Aspects of globalised markets and swiftly evolving technology influence businesses to adopt change in order to strengthen their performance in the market (Hughes 2010). For instance, such changes may reflect the introduction of a new software programme, or refocusing a marketing strategy. Companies, it has been suggestsed, must accept the force of change simply because their business environments require constant changes to take place (Jarrett 2003). Different external and internal organisational factors guide companies to consider the importance of change. Internal demands for change are derived from senior management and lower-level employees who drive the urgency for implementing change. External demands reflect changes in the PESTLE business environment (Burnes 2005). In practice, the management of change as presented in the case study of Unilever Nigeria Plc reflects common aspects of change observed in other Nigerian manufacturing organisations. . Observing the level of accepting organisational change among employees of Unilever Nigeria Plc may allow managers to structure the process of change in a manner to reflect employees’ different perceptions and expectations of change (Anthonia et al. 2013). This example also focuses on drawing lessons that can be functional and useful to other companies operating in the business environment of Nigeria. Approving and implementing organisational change indicate Unilever employees’ eagerness and willingness, support and assurance to the organisation which is important during the phase of major shifts in the structure of the organisation (Jarrett 2003). It has been suggested that senior managers are usually not in a rush in introducing change. They adhere to the belief that such procedure must be slow, balanced and systematic, particularly in large manufacturing companies like Unilever Nigeria Plc. Results from the survey conducted among employees of the Nigerian organisation revealed that the mean acceptance of change for all participants was reasonable. It has been indicated that characteristics of work settings do not represent any barriers to adopting change by Unilever employees. Acceptance of change by Unilever employees indicates the enthusiasm and confidence of the involved parties to hold and operate in a flexible business environment dominated by stakeholders’ assurance to influence and execute the changes (Anthonia et al. 2013). As highlighted by different scholars (Caldwell 2006; Jarrett 2003), the process of change can be both planned and managed especially if all stakeholders accept the desired outcomes by such organisational change. Researchers have argued that change should be established, executed and managed in such a way that draws the dedication from the affected parties like employees to accomplish the desired goals (Burnes 2004; Carnell 2007; Hayes 2010). The idea is that change is obligatory and predictable for organisations, as in the case of Unilever. It has been argued that to productively promote innovation in Unilever Nigeria Plc, it is not possible for senior management to have the ability and expertise needed for recognising th e necessity to manage change. Managers needed to widen their understanding of the major factors that may encourage or obstruct employees’ support for change initiatives in the organisation (Hughes 2010). This is significant because employees are considered the main stakeholders as well as the executers of change in the organisation. In the case of Unilever, it has been indicated that older employees and management staff were less receptive to the concept of change in comparison to younger employees working in the organisation. From the perspective of Unilever Nigeria Plc, employees were expected to hold and manage the execution of innovation through recognising the importance of innovative organisational culture. Unilever is a manufacturing company, in which the success of innovations is closely associated with support and encouragement from both senior management and non-managerial personnel (Anthonia et al. 2013). Additionally, innovations in Unilever Nigeria require strategic policies representing the company’s vision, goals, priorities and ways of action. In order to contribute to successful management of change within the organisation, senior managers combined effort and interpersonal reliance of all employees from all organisational departments and levels comprising the organisation’s hierarchical structure (Olufemi 2009). Unilever Nigerian Plc indicates an objective to deliver sufficient dividend on stakeholder investments. Yet the company is not resistant to most problems faced by oth er Nigerian companies. Similarly to most organisations operating in Nigeria, Unilever faced different internal challenges that weakened its competence to accomplish its mission thus pursuing to reinvent itself and manage the change process. Unilever Nigeria Plc has achieved solutions through innovations in order to implement change which has been recognised as a manageable process. The organisation is dedicated to innovation in various dimensions of its business, such as products, change policies, marketing initiatives and change mechanism strategies. It has been demonstrated that Unilever should reconsider the way in which it carries out its business activities in the economic Nigerian environment (Anthonia et al. 2013). The Nigerian organisation provides a practical example of how companies embrace the idea of change and manage it accordingly, with the idea to guarantee that the change process is executed effectively (Hayes 2010). Employees’ support, motivation, encouragement and commitment to change is fundamental. For example, results from surveying employees at Unilever revealed that most employees accept innovations, as non-managerial staff was more ready to accept change. Unilever Nigeria Plc tries to achieve the goals outlined in its vision of being a leading manufacturing organisation in Nigeria. However, the changes (or innovations) used to direct the company in that direction must be suitable to all stakeholders as well as properly executed (Burnes 2005). However, the successful execution of change and implementing other alteration measures in Unilever Nigeria Plc represents the relevance of two functional categories of human resources, that is management and non-management employees. Employees’ commitment to accomplish the various stages of change is a necessary requirement for the transformation of the company into an innovative enterprise because it would reflect strong indications of a company’s dynamic tempo of development (Hughes 2011). It has been found, through administering surveys to a sample of 720 senior/management staff and junior/non-managerial staff, that employees of Unilever Nigeria Plc demonstrated a positive attitu de towards change. This indicates a high level of recognition of change on the behalf of stakeholders (Anthonia et al. 2013). The findings recommended that senior management of Unilever Nigeria Plc indicated effective practices of uniting employees in order to sustain and manage the change process. The findings further implied that since employees at the company are likely to assess change completely, they are not opposed to it and thus any resistance is not expected to take place. In other words, employees would accept change and oppose it only if it increases legal concerns that may emerge in the workplace (Hughes 2011). This is consistent with the views shared in the organisational change management literature in the sense that negative attitudes of change may be an indicator for growing anxiety among employees. These findings are consistent with claims presented in existing literature, which shows that individuals may resist change or innovations because of uncertainty, misunderstanding, peer pressure, personal conflict and inaccurate perceptions of the change process (Anthonia et al. 2013; Hughes 2011; Paton and McCalman 2008). In particular, participative management, quality control management and trust in management emerged as important determinants of accepting the vali dity of the organisational change process by turning it into manageable and acceptable among employees of Unilever Nigeria Plc (Anthonia et al. 2013). The change initiated by senior management of Unilever Nigeria Plc was supported by employees, indicating that the organisation has adequately communicated the necessity to embrace and manage change (Anthonia et al. 2013). The major objective of the case study was to describe the organisational management of change at Unilever Nigeria Plc, which provided evidence that the change process can be manageable. The outcome that can be illustrated from this case study is that the corporate strategic model implied above does not seem to fit in with the assumptions of change demonstrated by senior managers (Hughes 2010). This may result in damaging the execution of necessary change at the organisation. This can apply to all manufacturing companies in Nigeria, as the majority of Nigerian organisations face interrelated challenges across different industry sectors. Failure of Change as a Manageable Process: The Food and Beverage Industry in Nigeria This section demonstrates findings that change has failed as a manageable process in some companies operating in the food and beverage industry in Nigeria. Olarewaju and Folarin (2012) aimed at exploring the impact of economic and political environment changes on organisational performance. Respondents from three companies operating in this industry filled questionnaires, as the results indicated that change failed as a manageable process. It has been suggested that managers should demonstrate greater concerns regarding organisational change and performance in terms of employing regular scanning of programmes introduced in organisations. It has been concluded that the influence of the external business environment, which involves persistent change, on organisational performance in the food and beverage industry in Nigeria was inadequate (Olarewaju and Folarin 2012). Understanding change as a manageable process was not effective across this industry because some food and beverage companies did not succeed in maintaining their performance measurement system properly. Forces shaping competition in the industry were irrelevant, pointing out that change initiatives were inadequate in this business context. Conclusion This paper presented arguments that change can be a planned and manageable process in contemporary organisations. The focus was on discussing the implications of change in the context of Nigerian companies, respectively Access Bank Plc and Unilever Nigeria Plc. It has been concluded that Access Bank Plc demonstrates a change structured process that is planned, whereas Unilever Nigeria Plc illustrates a manageable change process (Caldwell 2006). In addition, details of the failure of change as a planned and manageable process were included with regards to Nigerian public education and the food and beverage industry. The paper also illustrated the argument that change is linked with innovative organisational culture, which indicates a strong focus on the expected innovative performance of companies (Burnes 2004). The implications of conceptualising change as a planned and manageable process may help individuals and practitioners in the field recognise important characteristics and stag es of organisational change. References Abdulraheem, I., Mordi, C., Ojo, Y. and Ajonbadi, H. (2013) ‘Outcomes of Planned Organisational Change in the Nigerian Public Sector: Insights from the Nigerian Higher Education Institutions’, Economic Insights-Trends and Challenges, Vol. 2(1) pp26-37 Anthonia, A., Adewale, O. and Joachim, A. (2013) ‘Organisational Change and Human Resource Management Interventions: An Investigation of the Nigerian Banking Industry’, Serbian Journal of Management, Vol. 8(2) pp139-153 Burnes, B. (2004) Managing Change, London, Prentice Hall Burnes, B. (2005) ‘Complexity Theories and Organizational Change’, International Journal of Management Reviews, Vol. 7(2) pp73-90 Caldwell, R. (2006) Agency and Change, London, Routledge Carnell, C. (2007) Managing Change in Organisations, London, Prentice Hall Grieves, J. (2010) Organisational Change: Themes and Issues, Oxford, Oxford University Press Hayes, J. (2010) The Theory and Practice of Change Management, London, Palgrave Hughes, M. (2010) Managing Change: A Critical Perspective, London, CIPD Hughes, M. (2011) ‘Do 70 Per cent of All Organizational Change Initiatives Really Fail?’, Journal of Change Management, Vol. 11(4) pp451-464 Jarrett, M. (2003) ‘The Seven Myths of Change Management’, Business Strategy Review, Vol. 14(4) pp22-29 Olarewaju, A. A. and Folarin, E. A. (2012) ‘Impacts of External Business Environment on Organisational Performance in the Food and Beverage Industry in Nigeria’, British Journal of Arts and Social Sciences, Vol. 6(2) pp194-201 Olufemi, A. J. (2009) ‘Managing Organisational Change in Nigeria Manufacturing Enterprises: Lessons from the Unilever Nigeria Plc’, International Business Management, Vol. 3(2) pp15-21 Paton, R. A. and McCalman, J. (2008) Change Management: A Guide to Effective Implementation, London, Sage Van Nistelrooij, A. and Sminia, H. (2010) ‘Organization Development: What’s Actually Happening?’, Journal of Change Management, Vol. 10(4) pp 407-420

The Light Bulb: One of the Most Useful Inventions in the World

People need light to be able to see. In the morning, there is sunlight. But in the night, people use electric light made from light bulbs. Without light bulbs, people would not be able to see and would have to rely on their other senses to do tasks. Without light bulbs, our lives would be very different. The light bulb is a very useful invention that people all over the world use every day. The creation of the light bulb can be traced back to the 19th century. In 1800, Humphrey Davy made the arc lamp (â€Å"Lighting†). But the arc lamp was very dangerous because light was made by sparks, increasing the chance of fire (Burnie 52). In 1860, Joseph Swan made an incandescent light bulb. But the light bulb had many disadvantages. The light bulb burned out in an hour and it cost a lot of money (Burnie 52). Also, the filament was made of pure carbon, so when the carbon burnt, it filed the bulb with soot (â€Å"Lighting†). Then in 1879, Thomas Edison made a better incandescent (a term for heat-driven light emissions) light bulb. Time News reported, â€Å"Thomas Edison is the creator of the first commercially viable light bulb. † His incandescent light bulb was efficient, affordable, and safe (Fletcher). It took Edison years to make an incandescent light bulb. First he used a platinum filament and used a vacuum pump to reduce the oxygen level in the bulb, so it would be harder for a fire to start (Mintz 83). Later, he coated the filament with magnesium. He tested the bulb. Its electrical resistance was only 3 ohms, meaning that it doesn’t glow brightly. But it did glow for 13 hours and 38 minutes, proving it’s possible to keep a filament lit for long periods of time. Then he decided to use carbon because it was cheap and had a high melting point (Mintz 86). He used a fat piece of carbon, but its electrical resistance was only 2 ohms (Mintz 88). Then he made the piece thinner and longer, so the electrical resistance increased to 113 ohms (Mintz 89). Mintz said, â€Å"For example, if the same amount of water was put in a straw and a big water pipe, the pressure of the water in the straw would be a lot more† (90). Electrical resistance works the same way. Because he made the filament smaller, its electrical resistance increased, but it burned out in a few seconds. Finally, he made a filament that gave the best results. He used a piece of carbon, boiled in sugar and alcohol, and then baked in an over. Its electrical resistance was 107 ohms and it lasted 170 hours. Thomas Edison wrote in his diary, â€Å"My light is perfected† (Mintz 90). Thomas Edison created an incandescent light bulb, but now there are many others. One of them is a standard light bulb. It is an incandescent light bulb with 20 inches of filament made by tungsten (a metal discovered in 1912) surrounded by gases. It makes yellow-white light, but its efficiency is only 8%, meaning that only 8% of the electricity input is used to make light. The other 92% is used as heat or is passed to the other end of the filament. A daylight bulb is an incandescent light bulb, but is made to give the color and feel of daylight. It is made of many colors (Burnie 53). A fluorescent bulb works by passing current through a tube, producing ultraviolet radiation. The radiation hits the phosphorous coating, making light through chemical process. The bulb lasts about 10,000 hours. There is also a compact fluorescent bulb. They work like normal fluorescent bulbs, but are smaller and screw into sockets like incandescent light bulbs. Compact fluorescent bulbs also last about 10,000 hours (Kremer). Another type of bulb is low-pressure sodium lamp. It contains a little sodium, so it takes a few minutes to light up. The light it makes is almost pure yellow. A high-pressure sodium lamp contains sodium and aluminum. It makes pink-blue light. It is very efficient (Burnie 53). Another type of light is LED (light emitting diode). Compared to all the other types of light bulbs, LEDs are very unique and different. They have no filament, have a long life span, produce no heat, are very efficient, and one bulb is less than an inch long and about a centimeter wide. Unfortunately, they are very expensive. For under-the-cabinet lighting in a kitchen, one strip of it costs about $100 (Kremer). Overall, there are many different light bulbs now, and more will be invented in the future. There are many different light bulbs for different uses. Each light bulb can be used in at least one way or another. For example, daylight bulbs are used inside of buildings (Burnie 53). So are incandescent bulbs, fluorescent, compact fluorescent, and LED (Kremer). Low-pressure and high-pressure sodium lamps are used outside. More specifically, low-pressure sodium lamps are used in less populated areas, such as driveways. High-pressure sodium lamps are used in more populated ideas, such as streets. Incandescent bulbs, compact fluorescent, and LED bulbs are used in appliances and household objects, such as microwaves, flashlights, and cars (Burnie 53). All these bulbs help us see. Bulbs used inside buildings help us find objects in the night. Street lights make it safer to go bike riding, walk, or drive a car outside when it is dark. Bulbs used in household objects and appliances help us in many ways. For example, the bulb inside a refrigerator enables us to see food. The light in a flashlight helps us see in places where there is no light. All in all, light bulbs have many uses. The invention of the light bulb is very useful and everyone uses it. Without the light bulb, our lives would be very different. We would either have to use candles and risk the chance of fire, or not use candles and not be able to see at all in the night. I think that light bulbs help us every day, day and night, and are less dangerous than fire and candles.